2026年5月
Nation, Narrative, and Theatre History
Malaysia, as a diverse and multiracial nation, offers numerous avenues for examining how its history has been constructed. While there is an established national narrative, alternative viewpoints are constantly being considered, challenging the mainstream perspective. This prompts fundamental questions: Who contributed to the building of this country? What are its origins? What defines Malaysia as uniquely Malaysian? How should the country progress? These questions underscore the desire among Malaysians to be actively involved in shaping the ‘truth’ and determining the beliefs about their nation.
Figure 1: A common image portraying Malaysia’s multiracial, multicultural, and harmonious society
The approach to Malaysian theatre history reflects similar complexities. Attempting to document its development without acknowledging historical undercurrents is both irrelevant and incomplete. Mainstream narratives of Malaysian theatre are commonly taught in educational institutions, tracing their roots to the formation of Malaysia in 1963. At that time, four former British colonial states—Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah—joined to become an independent country. However, Singapore separated in August 1965, leaving Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah to constitute Malaysia as it exists today.
The race riots of May 1969 marked a pivotal moment in Malaysian history, prompting the government to implement both the New Economic Policy (NEP) and the National Cultural Policy (NCP). The NEP was designed to mitigate economic disparities among Malaysia’s various ethnic groups, while the NCP aimed to define and promote a cohesive Malaysian cultural identity. These policies, characterized by their top-down approach, played a significant role in shaping the construction of national identity and frequently led to the marginalization of alternative narratives within the arts and cultural sectors. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP), the Institute of Language and Literature, was among the earliest government institutions mandated to implement the NCP. During the 1970s, DBP actively published numerous works in the national language, including drama, thereby facilitating the dissemination of Malay drama across schools, towns, districts, and states, and encouraging its performance. Additionally, DBP produced a monthly literary magazine featuring drama criticism, essays, and selected plays, and organized annual drama competitions. This period is often regarded as the golden era of Malay theatre.
Figure 2: Dewan Sastra, which was later updated to the modern spelling Dewan Sastera, is a monthly literary magazine released by DBP
These developments had a profound impact on the evolution of drama in other languages, such as English, Chinese, Tamil, Iban, and various indigenous languages, which were spoken in their respective communities. The focus on productions in the national language, particularly those staged in Kuala Lumpur and aligned with the mainstream national narrative, resulted in the marginalization of practitioners working in non-Malay languages. Consequently, mapping the contributions of artists outside the Malay-language tradition within the mainstream narrative remains a challenging endeavor. Despite contemporary Malaysia’s vibrant, multilingual theatre scene, non-Malay traditions often remain marginalized in dominant historical narratives.
The political structure of federalism and centralization during this period significantly influenced the practice of theatre in Malaysia. Plays that aligned with the nation-building agenda were often lauded, reflecting the prevailing governmental priorities. Notable critics and writers, such as Krishen Jit, Dinsman, Salleh Ben Joned, and Syed Alwi, contributed actively to various print publications. Their critical methodologies predominantly emphasized the literary aspects of theatrical works, which is unsurprising given that Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP), as a governmental institution dedicated to language and literature, sought to promote the Malay language and thereby reinforce unity among Malaysia’s multiracial communities.
The colonial legacy has significantly influenced the writing of Malaysian theatre. Western dramatic conventions, which prioritize textual analysis over performative aspects, have shaped the early documentation of modern drama in Malaysia, often foregrounding the playwright’s contributions. Consequently, scholarly research and criticism have sought to position local drama within the frameworks established by Western theatrical traditions, frequently employing comparative methodologies.
The Critic as Early Historian
Krishen Jit, a historian then later became a theatre critic and practitioner, exemplified this approach by offering a methodological template for chronicling theatre history, specifically through his analysis of trends in Malay-language drama from the pre-Malaysia period up to the 1980s. Jit’s work is notable for its decade-based segmentation, a structure that has been widely adopted by subsequent theatre researchers and academics. However, Jit himself cautioned in the 1970s that the decade-based approach was a provisional method necessitated by the historical context, urging contemporary historians to develop more nuanced and innovative frameworks for writing Malaysian theatre history.
Figure 3: Krishen Jit
While Malay is the official language and is extensively utilized in formal settings, English continues to serve as the primary medium in professional contexts, particularly within the economic and scientific sectors. In cosmopolitan urban centers such as Kuala Lumpur, Georgetown, Kota Kinabalu, and Kuching, English is widely spoken, reflecting the nation’s multicultural fabric. Additionally, Mandarin and other Chinese dialects are prevalent among the Chinese community, especially in major cities. This linguistic segmentation mirrors broader societal divisions, resulting in parallel historiographical traditions. Consequently, theatre history in Malaysia is documented along distinct linguistic and cultural lines, precluding the emergence of a singular, unified narrative that can comprehensively encapsulate the multifaceted nature of Malaysian theatre.
In recent decades, DBP has experienced a diminished role in shaping theatre appreciation and practice as compared to its historical influence. The emergence of various governmental and non-governmental institutions has introduced alternative frameworks for engaging with theatre, thereby altering modes of production and performance. The National Department for Culture and Arts (Jabatan Kebudayaan dan Kesenian Negara, JKKN), operating under the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, has assumed responsibilities previously held by DBP. Similarly, Istana Budaya (National Theatre) fulfills a comparable function. Despite these developments, both agencies remain committed to advancing the national agenda and consistently prioritize performances that align with their institutional objectives. Conversely, theatre practitioners and companies that do not subscribe to or participate in ‘cultural performances’ designed for tourism or capitalistic purposes increasingly produce works intended for marginalized, fringe, and smaller communities.
Figure 4: Bangsawan is one of the traditional theatre forms that exist in Malaysia. JKKN, through its mandate, is responsible for strengthening and promoting this art form at the national level. This particular production is produced by JKKN under its programme called Semarak Bangsawan (or Rejuvenating Bangsawan)
Recent developments in Malaysian theatre have witnessed a proliferation of performances staged in smaller venues, characterized by minimal production costs. This environment has facilitated organic collaborations among recent graduates, emerging artists, and independent practitioners across diverse economic, racial, and linguistic backgrounds. Notably, established artists occasionally participate in these initiatives, either directly or indirectly, thereby supporting cross-generational collaborations and diverging from the strategies typically employed by governmental agencies. In urban centers such as Kuala Lumpur, where multicultural communities coexist, these collaborative practices have become a natural extension of the artistic landscape. While conventional modes of theatre production and performance continue to persist, the emergence of this alternative approach signifies a transformative shift in Malaysian theatre practice that merits scholarly attention and cannot be overlooked.
Criticism in the Age of the Internet
Figure 5: Screen capture from an old Kakiseni website
The act of writing about theatre serves as a continual process of documenting and shaping theatre history. In the early 2000s, Jenny Daneels and Kathy Rowland established the website Kakiseni, which became a prominent platform for disseminating news and information related to the arts in Malaysia. Beyond promoting theatrical productions and advertising auditions, Kakiseni published reviews, opinion pieces, and interviews contributed by writers, columnists, and artists representing diverse racial and linguistic backgrounds. The advent of the internet has not only enhanced accessibility for the Malaysian public and arts enthusiasts, but has also democratized the arts landscape by enabling broader community participation. The platform encouraged new writers to contribute to arts journalism, reflecting the inclusive nature of contemporary arts discourse.
Furthermore, the instantaneous nature of cyberspace allows for timely publication and engagement with the inherently ephemeral quality of theatre, in contrast to traditional print media such as monthly magazines, which are limited in their capacity to capture the immediacy and relevance of current theatrical events. This shift underscores the importance of digital platforms in advancing theatre criticism and historiography in Malaysia, offering greater responsiveness and inclusivity in the documentation of performance practices.
A revised historiographical framework for Malaysian theatre may be achieved by shifting focus away from the textual dimension of drama and instead emphasizing performativity and the practical aspects of theatrical production. Contemporary artists increasingly engage in cross-cultural and cross-linguistic collaborations, thereby fostering innovative approaches to performance-making. This evolution is characterized by a movement away from reliance on the script as the definitive blueprint for production, with contemporary practitioners such as Mark Teh, Norzizi Zulkifli, Ridhwan Saidi, Fairuz Sulaiman, Kelvin Wong, and Chee Sek Thim exemplifying this paradigm shift.
Within the domain of theatre criticism, a number of prominent figures have consistently contributed to the discourse. For instance, Azrin Fauzi, whose academic background is in architecture, regularly publishes critical observations and reviews in the Malay language. Similarly, Adriana Nordin Manan, an emerging playwright and multilingual commentator trained in anthropology and political science, offers critiques in both Malay and English. The engagement of contemporary critics who embody diverse disciplinary and linguistic perspectives demonstrates the emergence of a new historiographical paradigm in Malaysian theatre. This multiplicity not only enriches critical approaches but also parallels developments within artistic practice, thereby facilitating a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of performance.
Writing Theatre History in Real Time
Malaysia is a nation marked by significant linguistic diversity, with many citizens unable to fully comprehend one another’s languages. Despite these barriers, Malaysians strive to coexist harmoniously in their daily lives. This reality presents further opportunities for writers and historians to explore aspects of Malaysian theatre that remain underrepresented. Notably, there is a lack of scholarly attention toward theatre performances in smaller cities, grassroots or community-based theatre practices, as well as theatre in Sarawak and Sabah, and those utilizing minority or fringe languages. While such performances do occur, they are seldom discussed within mainstream academic or public discourse.
The proliferation of social media platforms has further democratized public opinion, providing new avenues for theatre discourse. Although these online discussions may not always employ academic language or a formal tone, they frequently utilize a relaxed, colloquial, and mixed-language style that appeals to younger audiences. This shift influences public perceptions of theatre reviews, resulting in a noticeable divide between so-called ‘serious’ and more casual reviews found on social media. These varying approaches offer different levels of engagement and understanding of performance. Ultimately, this diversity of perspectives is vital for the development of theatre writing and historiography, as a multiplicity of voices is preferable to a narrative dominated by a single perspective.
(Pictures are provided by the writer)
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